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For well-integrated members of a particular discipline, its paradigm is so convincing that it normally renders even the possibility of alternatives unconvincing and counter-intuitive. Such a paradigm is opaque, appearing to be a direct view of the...
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This is significant in relation to the issue of incommensurability see below. An example of a currently accepted paradigm would be the standard model of physics. The scientific method allows for orthodox scientific investigations into phenomena that might contradict or disprove the standard model; however grant funding would be proportionately more difficult to obtain for such experiments, depending on the degree of deviation from the accepted standard model theory the experiment would test for. To illustrate the point, an experiment to test for the mass of neutrinos or the decay of protons small departures from the model is more likely to receive money than experiments that look for the violation of the conservation of momentum, or ways to engineer reverse time travel.
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Mechanisms similar to the original Kuhnian paradigm have been invoked in various disciplines other than the philosophy of science. These include: the idea of major cultural themes, [16] [17] worldviews and see below , ideologies , and mindsets. They have somewhat similar meanings that apply to smaller and larger scale examples of disciplined thought. In addition, Michel Foucault used the terms episteme and discourse , mathesis and taxinomia , for aspects of a "paradigm" in Kuhn's original sense. Main article: Paradigm shift In The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, Kuhn wrote that "the successive transition from one paradigm to another via revolution is the usual developmental pattern of mature science" p.
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Paradigm shifts tend to appear in response to the accumulation of critical anomalies as well as the proposal of a new theory with the power to encompass both older relevant data and explain relevant anomalies. New paradigms tend to be most dramatic in sciences that appear to be stable and mature, as in physics at the end of the 19th century. At that time, a statement generally attributed to physicist Lord Kelvin famously claimed, "There is nothing new to be discovered in physics now.
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All that remains is more and more precise measurement. In this case, the new paradigm reduces the old to a special case in the sense that Newtonian mechanics is still a good model for approximation for speeds that are slow compared to the speed of light. Many philosophers and historians of science, including Kuhn himself, ultimately accepted a modified version of Kuhn's model, which synthesizes his original view with the gradualist model that preceded it. Kuhn's original model is now generally seen as too limited[ citation needed ].
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Some examples of contemporary paradigm shifts include: In medicine, the transition from "clinical judgment" to evidence-based medicine In social psychology, the transition from p-hacking to replication [19] In software engineering, the transition from the Rational Paradigm to the Empirical Paradigm [20] In artificial intelligence, the transition from classical AI to data-driven AI [21] Kuhn's idea was, itself, revolutionary in its time. It caused a major change in the way that academics talk about science; and, so, it may be that it caused or was part of a "paradigm shift" in the history and sociology of science. However, Kuhn would not recognize such a paradigm shift. Being in the social sciences, people can still use earlier ideas to discuss the history of science. Paradigm paralysis[ edit ] Perhaps the greatest barrier to a paradigm shift, in some cases, is the reality of paradigm paralysis: the inability or refusal to see beyond the current models of thinking.
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Examples include rejection of Aristarchus of Samos' , Copernicus ', and Galileo 's theory of a heliocentric solar system, the discovery of electrostatic photography , xerography and the quartz clock. The two versions of reality are thus incommensurable. Kuhn's version of incommensurability has an important psychological dimension; this is apparent from his analogy between a paradigm shift and the flip-over involved in some optical illusions. He suggested that it was impossible to make the comparison needed to judge which body of knowledge was better or more advanced. However, this change in research style and paradigm eventually after more than a century led to a theory of atomic structure that accounts well for the bulk properties of matter; see, for example, Brady's General Chemistry.
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However, members of other disciplines do see the issue of incommensurability as a much greater obstacle to evaluations of "progress"; see, for example, Martin Slattery's Key Ideas in Sociology. A few years after the discovery of the mirror-neurons that provide a hard-wired basis for the human capacity for empathy, the scientists involved were unable to identify the incidents that had directed their attention to the issue. Over the course of the investigation, their language and metaphors had changed so that they themselves could no longer interpret all of their own earlier laboratory notes and records.
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Imre Lakatos suggested as an alternative to Kuhn's formulation that scientists actually work within research programmes. This set of priorities, and the associated set of preferred techniques, is the positive heuristic of a programme. Each programme also has a negative heuristic; this consists of a set of fundamental assumptions that — temporarily, at least — takes priority over observational evidence when the two appear to conflict. This latter aspect of research programmes is inherited from Kuhn's work on paradigms,[ citation needed ] and represents an important departure from the elementary account of how science works.
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According to this, science proceeds through repeated cycles of observation, induction, hypothesis-testing, etc. Paradigms and research programmes allow anomalies to be set aside, where there is reason to believe that they arise from incomplete knowledge about either the substantive topic, or some aspect of the theories implicitly used in making observations. Larry Laudan: Dormant anomalies, fading credibility, and research traditions[ edit ] Larry Laudan [31] has also made two important contributions to the debate. Laudan believed that something akin to paradigms exist in the social sciences Kuhn had contested this, see below ; he referred to these as research traditions. Laudan noted that some anomalies become "dormant", if they survive a long period during which no competing alternative has shown itself capable of resolving the anomaly. He also presented cases in which a dominant paradigm had withered away because its lost credibility when viewed against changes in the wider intellectual milieu.
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In social sciences[ edit ] Kuhn himself did not consider the concept of paradigm as appropriate for the social sciences. He explains in his preface to The Structure of Scientific Revolutions that he developed the concept of paradigm precisely to distinguish the social from the natural sciences. While visiting the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences in and , surrounded by social scientists, he observed that they were never in agreement about the nature of legitimate scientific problems and methods.
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He explains that he wrote this book precisely to show that there can never be any paradigms in the social sciences. Mattei Dogan , a French sociologist, in his article "Paradigms in the Social Sciences," develops Kuhn's original thesis that there are no paradigms at all in the social sciences since the concepts are polysemic , involving the deliberate mutual ignorance between scholars and the proliferation of schools in these disciplines. Dogan provides many examples of the non-existence of paradigms in the social sciences in his essay, particularly in sociology, political science and political anthropology. However, both Kuhn's original work and Dogan's commentary are directed at disciplines that are defined by conventional labels such as "sociology".
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These structures will be motivating research, providing it with an agenda, defining what is and is not anomalous evidence, and inhibiting debate with other groups that fall under the same broad disciplinary label. A good example is provided by the contrast between Skinnerian radical behaviourism and personal construct theory PCT within psychology. The most significant of the many ways these two sub-disciplines of psychology differ concerns meanings and intentions. In PCT, they are seen as the central concern of psychology; in radical behaviourism, they are not scientific evidence at all, as they cannot be directly observed. Handa, [32] M. He identified the basic components of a social paradigm. Like Kuhn, Handa addressed the issue of changing paradigm; the process popularly known as " paradigm shift ". In this respect, he focused on social circumstances that precipitate such a shift and the effects of the shift on social institutions, including the institution of education.
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This broad shift in the social arena, in turn, changes the way the individual perceives reality. Another use of the word paradigm is in the sense of " worldview ". For example, in social science, the term is used to describe the set of experiences, beliefs and values that affect the way an individual perceives reality and responds to that perception. Social scientists have adopted the Kuhnian phrase "paradigm shift" to denote a change in how a given society goes about organizing and understanding reality. A "dominant paradigm" refers to the values, or system of thought, in a society that are most standard and widely held at a given time. Dominant paradigms are shaped both by the community's cultural background and by the context of the historical moment. Hutchin [33] outlines some conditions that facilitate a system of thought to become an accepted dominant paradigm: Professional organizations that give legitimacy to the paradigm Dynamic leaders who introduce and purport the paradigm Journals and editors who write about the system of thought.
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They both disseminate the information essential to the paradigm and give the paradigm legitimacy Government agencies who give credence to the paradigm Educators who propagate the paradigm's ideas by teaching it to students Conferences conducted that are devoted to discussing ideas central to the paradigm Media coverage Lay groups, or groups based around the concerns of lay persons, that embrace the beliefs central to the paradigm Sources of funding to further research on the paradigm Other uses[ edit ] The word paradigm is also still used to indicate a pattern or model or an outstandingly clear or typical example or archetype. The term is frequently used in this sense in the design professions. Design Paradigms or archetypes comprise functional precedents for design solutions. This term is also used in cybernetics.
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Here it means in a very wide sense a conceptual protoprogram for reducing the chaotic mass to some form of order. Note the similarities to the concept of entropy in chemistry and physics. A paradigm there would be a sort of prohibition to proceed with any action that would increase the total entropy of the system. To create a paradigm requires a closed system that accepts changes.
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Thus a paradigm can only apply to a system that is not in its final stage. Beyond its use in the physical and social sciences, Kuhn's paradigm concept has been analysed in relation to its applicability in identifying 'paradigms' with respect to worldviews at specific points in history. Although obedience to popes such as Innocent III and Boniface VIII was widespread, even written testimony from the time showing loyalty to the pope does not demonstrate that the writer had the same worldview as the Church, and therefore pope, at the centre. The difference between paradigms in the physical sciences and in historical organisations such as the Church is that the former, unlike the latter, requires technical expertise rather than repeating statements.
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In other words, after scientific training through what Kuhn calls ' exemplars ', one could not genuinely believe that, to take a trivial example, the earth is flat , whereas thinkers such as Giles of Rome in the thirteenth century wrote in favour of the pope, then could easily write similarly glowing things about the king. A writer such as Giles would have wanted a good job from the pope; he was a papal publicist. However, Harris writes that 'scientific group membership is not concerned with desire, emotions, gain, loss and any idealistic notions concerning the nature and destiny of humankind Wikimedia Commons has media related to Paradigm.
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