[FREE] Chapter 6 The Adolescent In Society Test Answers
The institution is different, but the demands are there, and the students develop a collective response to these demands. This response takes a similar form to that of workers in industry —holding down effort to a level which can be maintained...
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7.3 Adolescence: Developing Independence and Identity
It would instead make such evaluations infrequent, and subsidiary to the group contests and games, both within the school and between schools. As an example, one of the schools I have been studying is too small to compete effectively in most sports, but participates with vigor each year in the state music contests. It nearly always wins a high place in the statewide contest. The striking result of this successful competition is the high status of music among the adolescents themselves. It is a thing of pride to be a trombone soloist in this school, and the leading boys in the school are also leading musicians—not, as in many schools, scornful of such an unmanly activity. This is despite the fact that the school serves a largely farming community. Finally, Coleman believes that these shifts in the competitive structure of high schools can change the norms and values of the institution, for the better, to encourage academics. The present structure of rewards in high schools produces a response on the part of an adolescent social system which effectively impedes the process of education.
Ch.6 Adolescent Development
Yet the structure of rewards could be so designed that the adolescent norms themselves would reinforce educational goals. James S. Last updated June 22,
Chapter 6 Holt Sociology The Adolescent In Society
In the following sections, we summarize current research on structural and functional brain changes taking place over the course of adolescence. Our summary begins with a focus on morphological changes in gray and white matter, followed by a discussion of structural changes in regions of the brain that have particular relevance for adolescent cognitive and social functioning. We then discuss current theoretical perspectives that attempt to account for the associations between neurobiological, psychological, and behavioral development in adolescence. Notably, the field of adolescent neuroscience has grown quickly over the past several decades.
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Advances in technology continue to provide new insights into neurobiological development; however, there is still a lack of agreed-upon best practices, and different approaches e. Gray matter is comprised of neural cell bodies i. New learning and memories are stored in dynamic synaptic networks that depend equally on synapse elimination and synapse formation. That is, unused connections and cells must be pruned away as the brain matures, specializes, and tailors itself to its environment Ismail et al. White matter, on the other hand, is comprised of myelin. Myelin is the fatty sheath around the long projections, or axons, that neurons use to communicate with other neurons.
Chapter 20: Cognitive Development in Adolescence
With myelination, neurons are also able to recover quickly from firing each signal and are thereby able to increase the frequency of information transmission Giedd, Not only that, myelinated neurons can more efficiently integrate information from other input neurons and better coordinate their signaling, firing an outgoing signal only when information from all other incoming neurons is timed correctly Giedd, Thus, the increase in white matter is representative of the increase in quality and speed of neuron-to-neuron communication throughout adolescence.
6. Development from conception to adolescence
Recent advances in neuroimaging methods have greatly enhanced our understanding of adolescent brain development over the past three decades. In the mids developmental neuroscientists described differential changes in gray matter i. Specifically, gray-matter volume was believed to follow an inverted-U shape, peaking in different regions at different ages and declining over the course of late adolescence and adulthood Lenroot and Giedd, In contrast, cortical white matter, which reflects myelin growth, was shown to increase steadily throughout adolescence and into early adulthood, reflecting increased connectivity among brain regions Lenroot and Giedd, The proliferation of neuroimaging studies, particularly longitudinal studies following children over the course of ado- Page 49 Share Cite Suggested Citation:"2 Adolescent Development. Researchers found that gray-matter volume was highest in childhood, decreased across early and middle adolescence, and began to stabilize in the early twenties; this pattern held even after accounting for intracranial and whole brain volume Mills et al.
Sociology: Chapter 6-1 The Adolescent in Society
Additional studies of cortical volume have also documented the highest levels occurring in childhood with decreases from late childhood throughout adolescence; the decrease appears to be due to the thinning of the cortex Tamnes et al. For white-matter volume, on the other hand, researchers found that across samples, increases in white-matter volume occurred from childhood through mid-adolescence and showed some stabilizing in late adolescence Mills et al. This finding generally confirms patterns observed in other recent studies, with the exception that some researchers have found continued increases in white-matter volume into early adulthood versus stabilizing in late adolescence; e. Figure shows these recent findings related to gray and white matter. The widely held belief about a peak in cortical gray matter around puberty followed by declines throughout adolescence was based on the best available evidence at the time.
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New studies show steady declines in cortical volume beginning in late childhood and continuing through middle adolescence. While the decrease in volume is largely due to cortical thinning rather than changes in surface area, there appear to be complex, regionally specific associations between cortical thickness and surface area that change over the course of adolescence Tamnes et al.
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Discrepant findings can be attributed to a number of factors including head motion during brain imaging procedures more common among younger participants , different brain imaging equipment, and different approaches to statistical modeling Tamnes et al. There do appear to be converging findings regarding overall directions of change; however, inconsistencies in descriptions of trajectories, peaks, and regional changes will likely continue to emerge as researchers work toward agreed-upon best practices Vijayakumar et al.
Chapter 9: Developmental Psychology
Importantly, though, as Mills and colleagues , p. Best fitting models are represented by the solid lines. Dashed lines represent percent confidence intervals. In fact, some neural circuity, consisting of networks of synaptic connections, is extremely malleable during adolescence, as connections form and Page 51 Share Cite Suggested Citation:"2 Adolescent Development. Gray-matter reduction in the cortex is associated with white-matter organization, indicating that cortical thinning seen in adulthood may be a result of both increased connectivity of necessary circuitry and pruning of unnecessary synapses Vandekar et al. Thus, adolescent brains can modulate the strength and quality of neuronal connections rapidly to allow for flexibility in reasoning and for leaps in cognition Giedd, Structural Changes in the Adolescent Brain Two key neurodevelopmental processes are most reliably observed during adolescence.
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First, there is evidence of significant change and maturation in regions of the prefrontal cortex PFC involved in executive functioning and cognitive and impulse control capabilities Crone and Steinbeis, ; Steinberg, In other words, areas of the brain that support planning and decision-making develop significantly during the second decade of life. Second, there is evidence of improved connectivity 5 within and between the cortical i. Moreover, in both the cortical and subcortical regions, there are age-related and hormone-related changes in neural activity and structure, such as increased volume and connectivity Gogtay et al. Over the course of adolescence, regions of the PFC undergo protracted development and significant remodeling. Compared to adults, adolescents have a significantly less mature cortical system and tend to utilize these regions less efficiently, and this impacts their top-down cognitive abilities including planning, working memory, impulsivity control, and decision-making Casey and Caudle, Ongoing development of structures and connections within the cortical regions corresponds to more efficient balancing of inputs and outputs as adolescents interact with the world.
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Changes within subcortical brain regions are also reflected in adolescent capabilities. For instance, increased volume in certain subregions of the hippocampus may predict greater capacity for memory recall and retention in adolescents Tamnes et al. Adolescents also display heightened activity in the hippocampus, compared with adults, and differential reward processing in the striatum, which is part of the basal ganglia and plays an important role in motivation and perception of reward.
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Another subcortical structure, the amygdala, undergoes significant development during puberty and gains new connections to other parts of the brain, such as the striatum and hippocampus Scherf et al. The amygdala modulates and integrates emotional responses based on their relevance and impact in context. Consequently, they are prone to impulsive action in response to potential threats 7 Dreyfuss et al.
The Adolescent Society - Education Next
Changes in the hippocampus and amygdala may be responsible for suppressing fear responses in certain contexts Pattwell et al. Such fearlessness can be adaptive for adolescents as they explore new environments and make important transitions—such as entering college or starting a new job away from home. Children and adults do not tend to show the same kind of fear suppression as adolescents, suggesting that this is unique to this stage of development Pattwell et al.
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A Neurodevelopmental Perspective on Risk-Taking In recent years, researchers have worked to reconcile contemporary neuroscience findings with decades of behavioral research on adolescents. Risk-taking can be driven by a tendency for sensation-seeking, in which individuals exhibit an increased attraction toward novel and intense sensations and experiences despite their possible risks Steinberg, ; Zuckerman and Kuhlman, This characteristic is heightened during adolescence and is strongly associated with reward sensitivity and drive Cservenka et al. Ironically, as executive function improves, risk-taking based on sensation-seeking also rises, likely due to these strengthened dopamine pathways from the striatum to the PFC regions Murty et al. Risk-taking can also be driven by impulsivity, which includes the tendency to act without thinking about consequences impulsive action or to choose small, immediate rewards over larger, delayed rewards impulsive choice Romer et al.
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Impulsive action, which is based on insensitivity to risk, is a form of risk-taking that peaks during early adolescence and is inversely related to working memory ability Romer et al. It may also be a consequence of asynchronous limbic-PFC maturation, which is described below. Notably, impulsive actions are seen most frequently in a subgroup of adolescents with pre-existing impairment in self-control and executive function Bjork and Pardini, In contrast, impulsive choice behaviors, which are made under conditions of known risks and rewards, do not peak in adolescence.
Adolescence - Wikipedia
Instead, impulsive choice declines from childhood to adulthood, reflecting the trend of increasing, prefrontal-regulated executive functions throughout adolescence van den Bos et al. Interestingly, when given the choice between two risky options with ambiguous reward guarantees, adolescents are more inclined to explore the riskier option than are adults Levin and Hart, , showing a greater tolerance for ambiguities in reward and stronger exploratory drive Tymula et al.
Ch.6 Adolescent Development | Desktop Guide
Enrollment and Admission Standard 1. Healthy full-term infants can be enrolled in child care settings as early as three months of age. Premature infants or those with chronic health conditions should be evaluated by their primary care providers and developmental specialists to make an individual determination concerning the appropriate age for child care enrollment.
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Concurrently, and as a direct consequence of these shifts in central nervous system structure and function, infants demonstrate significant growth, irregularity, and eventually, organization of their behavior, physiology, and social responsiveness ,5. Arousal responses to stimulation mature before the ability to self-regulate and control such responses in the first six to eight weeks of life causing infants to demonstrate an expanding range and fluctuation of behavioral state changes from quiet to alert to irritable ,6. Infant behavior is most disorganized, most difficult to read and most frustrating to support at the six to eight week period 2,3. Over the course of the third month, infants demonstrate an emerging capacity to sustain states of sleep and alert attention. Infants, birth to three months of age, can become seriously ill very quickly without obvious signs 7. This increased risk to infants, birth to three months makes it important to minimize their exposure to children and adults outside their family, including exposures in child care 8.
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In addition, infants of mothers who return to work, particularly full-time, before twelve weeks of age, and are placed in group care may be at even greater risk for developing serious infectious diseases. These infants are less likely to receive recommended well-child care and immunizations and to be breastfed or are likely to have a shorter duration of breastfeeding 16, Researchers report that breastfeeding duration was significantly higher in women with longer maternity leaves as compared to those with less than nine to twelve weeks leave 9, A leave of less than six weeks was associated with a much higher likelihood of stopping breastfeeding 10, Continuing breastfeeding after returning to work may be particularly difficult for lower income women who may have fewer support systems It takes women who have given birth about six weeks to return to the physical health they had prior to pregnancy A significant portion of women reported child birth related symptoms five weeks after delivery Birth of a child or adoption of a newborn, especially the first, requires significant transition in the family.
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They can now contemplate such abstract constructs as beauty, love, freedom, and morality. The adolescent is no longer limited by what can be directly seen or heard. Additionally, while younger children solve problems through trial and error, adolescents demonstrate hypothetical-deductive reasoning, which is developing hypotheses based on what might logically occur. They are able to think about all the possibilities in a situation beforehand, and then test them systematically Crain, Now they are able to engage in true scientific thinking. Formal operational thinking also involves accepting hypothetical situations.
Chapter 6 - Adolescence Quiz
For example, when asked: If Maria is shorter than Alicia and Alicia is shorter than Caitlyn, who is the shortest? Adolescents are able to answer the question correctly as they understand the transitivity involved. Does everyone reach formal operations? According to Piaget, most people attain some degree of formal operational thinking but use formal operations primarily in the areas of their strongest interest Crain, In fact, most adults do not regularly demonstrate formal operational thought, and in small villages and tribal communities, it is barely used at all.
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Adolescent Egocentrism: Once adolescents can understand abstract thoughts, they enter a world of hypothetical possibilities and demonstrate egocentrism or a heightened self-focus. The egocentricity comes from attributing unlimited power to their own thoughts Crain, Piaget believed it was not until adolescents took on adult roles that they would be able to learn the limits to their own thoughts. Elkind theorized that the physiological changes that occur during adolescence result in adolescents being primarily concerned with themselves. Additionally, since adolescents fail to differentiate between what others are thinking and their own thoughts, they believe that others are just as fascinated with their behavior and appearance. This belief results in the adolescent anticipating the reactions of others, and consequently constructing an imaginary audience. Elkind thought that the imaginary audience contributed to the self-consciousness that occurs during early adolescence.
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The desire for privacy and reluctance to share personal information may be a further reaction to feeling under constant observation by others. Alternatively, recent research has indicated that the imaginary audience is not imaginary. Another important consequence of adolescent egocentrism is the personal fable or belief that one is unique, special, and invulnerable to harm. Elkind explains that because adolescents feel so important to others imaginary audience they regard themselves and their feelings as being special and unique. Adolescents believe that only they have experienced strong and diverse emotions, and therefore others could never understand how they feel.
Chapter 6 Holt Sociology The Adolescent in Society Flashcards - 1medicoguia.com
Adolescents will engage in risky behaviors, such as drinking and driving or unprotected sex, and feel they will not suffer any negative consequences. Elkind believed that adolescent egocentricity emerged in early adolescence and declined in middle adolescence, however, recent research has also identified egocentricity in late adolescence Schwartz, et al. Consequences of Formal Operational Thought: As adolescents are now able to think abstractly and hypothetically, they exhibit many new ways of reflecting on information Dolgin, They begin to imagine how the world could be which leads them to become idealistic or insisting upon high standards of behavior.
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Because of their idealism, they may become critical of others, especially adults in their life. Additionally, adolescents can demonstrate hypocrisy, or pretend to be what they are not. Since they are able to recognize what others expect of them, they will conform to those expectations for their emotions and behavior seemingly hypocritical to themselves.
SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CONSEQUENCES OF TEENAGE CHILDBEARING - Risking the Future - NCBI Bookshelf
Lastly, adolescents can exhibit pseudostupidity. This is when they approach problems at a level that is too complex, and they fail because the tasks are too simple. Information Processing Cognitive Control: As noted in earlier chapters, executive functions, such as attention, increases in working memory, and cognitive flexibility have been steadily improving since early childhood.
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